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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Scholastic Achievement:
A Model of Mediation Via Academic Enablers
Robert J. Volpe, George J. DuPaul, James C. DiPerna, Asha K.
Jitendra, J. Gary Lutz, Katy Tresco, & Rosemary Vile Junod
Implications for Practice
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental health disorder
characterized by developmentally inappropriate levels of inattention, and/or
impulsivity and activity that result in impaired social and/or academic functioning
across more than one setting. A primary long-term outcome associated with ADHD
is academic underachievement, with the vast majority of students experiencing
academic problems. Although the association between ADHD and academic underachievement
has been well documented, few studies have sought to investigate pathways from
ADHD to academic problems.
Drawing on prior studies concerning outcomes for children with ADHD and a
body of literature investigating the influences on student educational outcomes
in typically developing children, the current study examined the influence
of the symptoms of ADHD on student academic achievement in reading and in mathematics
in a sample of first-grade through fourth--grade students, many of which were
identified as having ADHD and academic problems in reading and/or math. A theoretical
model, postulating that student academic enablers (motivation, study skills,
interpersonal skills, and engagement) and prior academic achievement would
partially explain the relationship between ADHD and academic achievement in
mathematics and reading, was tested in this study. Results of these analyses
indicated that ADHD influences motivation, which affect study skills, that
in turn influences academic achievement in both of these academic subject areas.
The results of this study have important implications for those seeking to
help students with ADHD overcome their academic problems. The overwhelming
majority of studies investigating interventions for children with ADHD have
targeted the core symptoms of the disorder (e.g., attention, impulsivity, overactivity).
This approach was based to some degree on the assumption that the impairment
of children with ADHD was a result of a performance deficit as opposed to specific
skills deficits. In other words, it was believed that children with ADHD knew
what to do; they simply had difficulty getting it done. Recently, there has
been increasing interest in targeting directly the academic skills problems
of children with ADHD. The results of our study suggest that when seeking to
ameliorate the academic problems experienced by children with ADHD it is important
to include interventions that address student motivation.
It is clear that children with ADHD demonstrate difficulties in the regulation
of motivation and often fail to persist in tasks that are difficult. There
is evidence that such difficulties are associated with a lack of sensitivity
to reward (see Luman, Oosterlaan, & Sergeant, 2004). Because, many children
with ADHD seem to find little reward in academic tasks compared to their peers,
it is necessary to enhance rewards to increase motivation. Such reward enhancements
can be intrinsic (e.g., built into the curricular material by making the material
more interesting and insuring that the material is at an appropriate level
of difficulty to maximize student success), or extrinsic (e.g., contingent
upon task completion or accuracy).
We make the following general recommendations for enhancing the academic motivation
of students with ADHD:
- Make it interesting. Find ways to select curricular materials
that are of interest to the student. If you are not sure what the student
finds interesting, ask. Consider using instructional software in your classroom.
These programs are highly interactive and there is growing evidence that
such software improves student performance in mathematics and reading while
having positive effects on rates of academic engagement (e.g., Clarfield & Stoner,
2005; Ota & DuPaul, 2002).
- Make it appropriate. Select curricular materials and targets
for instruction that are appropriate for the student given his or her skill
level (see Howel & Nolet, 2000).
- Make it efficient. Maximize the time the student is responding
actively (reading aloud, completing worksheets, answering questions) at high
levels of success. If the student is working independently, they should know
between 93% and 97% of the material (e.g., words in a reading passage), and
if working with assistance they should know between 70 and 85%. Keep this
in mind when assigning homework (see Glicking & Rosenfield, 1995).
- Make it rewarding. Look for opportunities to provide students
with immediate performance feedback.
- Make the connection. Set goals with the student, monitor
student progress, and share these data with the student, especially when
the he or she is successful. Try to highlight the link between sustained
effort and success.
Finally, InterventionCentral.com has
a wealth of materials available to aid in the development of instructional
materials and academic interventions. Below is a link to a other recommendations
for enhancing student motivation.
References and Resources
Clarfield, J. & Stoner, G. (2005). The effects of computerized reading
instruction on the academic performance of students identified with ADHD. School
Psychology Review, 34, 246-254.
Glicking, E. E., and Rosenfield, S. (1995). Best practices in curriculum-based
assessment. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology III (pp. 587-595). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
Howel, K. W. & Nolet, V. (2000). Curriculum-based
evaluation: Teaching and decision making (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Ota, K. R., & DuPaul, G. J. (2002). Task performance and mathematics performance
in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects of supplemental
computer instruction. School Psychology Quarterly, 17, 242-257.
Encouraging Student Motivation
http://www.interventioncentral.org
/htmdocs/interventions/motivation.shtm