NASP Communiqué, Vol. 35, #2
October 2006
Halloween and Children’s Safety: A Primer for School Psychologists
By David N. Miller
Halloween is perhaps the most unique of all American holidays. Despite its increasing
popularity, it is widely condemned and frequently misunderstood (Morton, 2003). Although
it is not an official or legal holiday, Americans spend more than six billion dollars
annually celebrating Halloween, more than is spent on any other holiday except Christmas
(Feldman, 2001). The origins of Halloween are ancient — it is over 3,000 years old — yet it
has contemporary appeal. It has Celtic-Irish-Scottish roots as both a harvest festival and a
commemoration of the dead, but in contemporary America it has become an annual event
of “masked solicitation” (trick-or-treating) and large-scale celebration (Morton, 2003).
For school psychologists, the arrival of Halloween each 31st of October may be a welcome
occasion, particularly for those working with young children in elementary schools.
Seeing kids happily come to school dressed in costumes, marching in a parade, and enjoying
the autumn season may serve to remind us of our own youthful activities on Halloween, although
some of these activities may now be occurring less frequently in schools than in the
past (Bannatyne, 2001). Although in recent years Halloween costume parties and celebrations
have become increasingly popular among adults, most Americans continue to associate
Halloween with children and youth, largely because of the popularity of “trick-or-treat.”
Halloween is for the most part a benign occasion for most Americans, but there has
been longstanding, persistent media attention given to reports of less savory aspects of
the holiday. In particular, many parents and caregivers seem increasingly concerned
about the safety of their children on Halloween, given past and current media reports
of food poisonings, “satanic” rituals, and other disturbing events during late October.
Children’s safety on Halloween has become such a concern that many parents/caregivers
avoid having their children trick-or-treat in their local neighborhoods in favor of other,
better monitored community areas (e.g., malls). Others avoid having their children go out
trick-or-treating on Halloween at all and create alternative forms of fun, such as adult-supervised
Halloween parties.
The purpose of this article is to provide a brief primer on Halloween for school psychologists,
and especially to examine evidence and provide information regarding whether
participating in traditional Halloween activities can legitimately be considered dangerous
or unsafe. In particular, the seasonal practice of “trick-or-treat” will be emphasized, given
that over 90% of young children in the U.S. go trick-or-treating each year, and because
it is “probably the single most popular and beloved element of contemporary Halloween
celebrations” (Morton, 2003, p. 175).
Trick-or-Treat: A Brief Cultural History
The tradition of children dressing up in costumes, going to various dwellings, and uttering
the phrase “trick-or treat!” in exchange for candy or other edible items is a relatively
new one. Children engaging in trick-or-treating as we know it today did not exist prior to
the twentieth century, and the practice did not become even moderately popular until the
1920s (Bannatyne, 1998). In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Halloween was
primarily an adult holiday, with parties involving fortune-telling and divination games and
activities such as bobbing for apples (Morton, 2003). Halloween also was associated at this
time with various kinds of pranks such as ringing doorbells, unwinding rolls of toilet paper
on trees and houses, and — a personal favorite of my grandfather — tipping over outhouses.
These pranks were first confined mainly to rural areas and later, in the twentieth
century, spread to cities (Bannatyne, 1998).
Increases in Halloween pranks and the resulting damage it caused led public officials
to attempt to “re-channel” youthful Halloween “spirit” by creating carefully organized
community events, such as Halloween parties and parades (Morton, 2003). The concern of
many adults to “tame” the holiday led to an increased emphasis on children and trick-ortreating
in closely monitored neighborhoods, and it is likely that trick-or-treating had its
immediate origins “in the myriad of organized celebrations mounted by school and civic
groups across the country specifically to curb vandalism” (Skal, 2002, pp. 53–54). Indeed,
the possibility of pranks is embedded in the very phrase “trick-or-treat” with its implied
threat that adults will be the recipient of a “trick” unless the costumed youngster is provided
with some sort of “treat.” The “trick” aspect of Halloween lives on in some communities
in the form of “Mischief Night” or “Devil’s Night,” traditionally occurring the night before
Halloween on October 30th.
Trick-or-treating grew rapidly in popularity between 1920 and 1950, most likely “finding
its first practices in the wealthier areas of the East and slowly spreading to remote areas
of the West and South” (Bannatyne, 1998, p. 142). Its exact historical origins are unknown
(Morton, 2003), but it is linked to other Halloween rituals of the past, such as “souling.”
In ancient Ireland, individuals would celebrate All Souls’ Day by masquerading and going
from house-to-house offering up small prayers and/or songs in exchange for “soul cakes”
and other food (Morton, 2003). The practice of trick-or-treating also may have been influenced
by other “begging traditions,” with some tracing it back to Celtic mythology and
tales of supernatural beings demanding a tribute on Samhain (pronounced sow-en), the
Celtic precursor to Halloween (Morton, 2003). Over the centuries, these various practices
and traditions eventually found their way — in modified forms — to other countries,
including the U.S. Today, millions of children go trick-or-treating annually, and 70% of
American households report opening their doors to them each year (Feldman, 2001). Sociologists
have suggested that trick-or-treat’s enduring appeal lies in its inversion of social
norms, as it is the one day each year when children are in power and adults are subordinate
(Morton, 2003).
Urban Legends: Poisoned Candy, Razor Blades in Apples, and Satanic Rituals
Each year during late October, newspapers and other media outlets provide Halloween
“safety tips” that often include the recommendation to “check for tampered treats” (Bannatyne,
2001). Adults have been concerned about the safety of childhood trick-or-treat activities
since rumors of Halloween candy being laced with drugs began in the 1960s (Bannatyne,
1998). Unsubstantiated rumors of children’s Halloween candy being poisoned were
widespread: “By the late 1960s the media was full of Halloween safety tips, and by the early
1970s, the public was urged to replace candy treats with non-edible ones” (Bannatyne,
1998, p. 143). These fears of candy mixed with drugs were exacerbated in September 1982
when cyanide was found in Extra-Strength Tylenol capsules in the Chicago area, killing
seven people. The perpetrator was never found, and anxious parents kept their children
home and away from trick-or-treating (Bannatyne, 1998).
According to investigators such as Bannatyne (1998, 2001), Rogers (2002), and Skal
(2002), however, there have to date been only two known childhood deaths as a result of
poisoned candy, and in both cases the children in question were poisoned by family members
or relatives rather than strangers. Ironically, “in both cases, family members apparently
used the legend (of strangers as perpetrators) to deflect suspicion from themselves onto
shadow bogeymen elsewhere in the community” (Ellis, 1994, p. 27). No evidence exists to
suggest that strangers have ever perpetrated such a crime. As noted by Bannatyne (2001):
“According to police reports and studies, not one child has been killed by a sadistic stranger
lying in wait on Halloween with a deadly treat” (p. 222). The lack of any actual evidence of
strangers poisoning children’s candy has not deterred its widespread belief, however, and
it was and continues to be an “urban legend,” largely if inaccurately accepted as fact by a
significant number of Americans (Skal, 2002).
Another prominent Halloween urban legend involves adults placing razor blades in
apples and giving them to trick-or-treaters. Like rumors regarding poisoned candy, sociologists
date the origin of the razor blades legend to the late 1960s and early 1970s, a time of
growing adult fears about the safety of children, the danger of crime, and other social ills
(Best & Horiuchi, 1985). Despite popular rumors to the contrary, there is no recorded incident
of a child dying from biting into an apple with a razor blade in it (Bannatyne, 2001).
Rumors of poisoned candy and razor blades in apples continue to be generated, however,
and have led to some interesting responses within various communities. For example,
many hospitals offered to X-ray children’s trick-or-treat bags beginning in the 1970s (Ellis,
1994). Most eventually stopped, however, as they rarely found anything, X-rays cannot
detect poison, and because the American Association of Poison Control (AAPC) noted in
1987 that X-rays detected foreign bodies such as metal in food only 14% of the time (Ellis,
1994). Citing fears of liability lawsuits if children were harmed by X-rayed candy, the AAPC
advised hospitals to stop the practice, and most eventually did so.
A final urban legend surrounding Halloween is that “satanic cults” perform ritualistic
crimes on this date, including human and/or animal sacrifice (Bannatyne, 2001) and child
abductions (Ellis, 1994). This urban legend appears to have begun in the early 1970s after
a wave of mysterious cattle mutilations (Morton, 2003). Evidence suggests, however, that
“satanic rituals” and “devil worship” on Halloween appear to be figments of overactive
imaginations. Ellis (1994), for example, noted that the FBI has never confirmed even a
single instance of “cult sacrifice” murder in the U.S., either on Halloween or any other day
of the year, and religion scholar J. Gordon Melton refers to contemporary Satanism as “the
world’s largest religion that does not exist” (quoted in Bannatyne, 2001, p. 226). Investigators
such as Bannatyne (2001) have likewise found little or no evidence for this phenomenon:
“The largest organized satanic-style cults such as the Church of Satan or the Temple
of Set (never more than a few hundred members) are now largely dormant — most satanic
cults usually number three to five people and last only a few months. There is no religious
denomination or even any cult today that worships the Devil on Halloween, not even these
so-called Satanists. In addition, there are no confirmed statistics, court cases, or studies
to support the idea that serious satanic cult crime even exists. It turns out that most of the
devil-worshiping activity reported in the media is perpetrated by teenagers based on what
they’ve read in church literature or seen in movies” (p. 226).
A Real Safety Issue: Traffic
It appears that the dangers associated with urban legends such as poisoned candy, razor
blades in apples, and satanic rituals are overblown and largely overestimated. The lack
of evidence for these urban legends does not, of course, imply that parents and caregivers
should be unconcerned about safety issues when children are allowed to trick-or-treat.
Some aspects of trick-or-treating may be dangerous, and Bannatyne (2001) indicates that
the most serious of these is probably traffic. Part of the problem is the presence of drunk
drivers. In 1998, for example, more than 20% of all fatalities that occurred during that Halloween
weekend were alcohol-related (Bannatyne, 2001). Adult drinking and driving is not
the only culprit, however; factors such as dark costumes which are difficult for drivers to
see are also part of the problem, and kids often are easily excitable on Halloween and perhaps
as a result more likely to impulsively run out into traffic. Many young children aren’t
ready to handle street crossing by themselves and frequently overestimate how quickly
they can cross over to the other side of a street (Bannatyne, 2001).
In compiling data from Halloween-related traffic fatalities from 1975 through 1996,
the Centers for Disease Control, the Division of Unintentional Injury Prevention, and the
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control reported that, for children ages 5–14, an
average of four deaths per year occurred during peak trick-or-treat evening hours, whereas
an average of one death occurred in this age group per year on every other day of the
year. An addendum to the report “warns the figure may be low, since it does not include
accidents that occur in driveways, parking lots and on sidewalks, nor does it include data
beyond 10 PM or from another day” (Bannatyne, 2001, p. 232). Ultimately, it would appear
that sadists or satanists are not nearly as much a threat to children on Halloween as are
cars, trucks, and SUVs.
These figures suggest that the likelihood of a child becoming involved in a fatal accident
is only slightly higher on Halloween than on any other day. Although the death of even one child in a traffic accident is one too many, the realization that such accidents remain extremely
rare can hopefully provide some needed comfort — and perspective — to frequently
anxious parents and caregivers concerned about their children’s safety on Halloween.
Implications for School Psychologists
Given the popularity of Halloween among children and the safety concerns of parents
and caregivers regarding the holiday, it is important for school psychologists to be cognizant
of the issues described here. When consulting with parents/caregivers regarding Halloween,
children’s safety should be acknowledged as a legitimate concern, but emphasizing the importance
of maintaining an appropriate perspective is recommended. In particular, parents
and caregivers should be made aware that many of the modern safety fears associated with
Halloween are nothing more than urban legends, and that the chances of their children
becoming involved in dangerous situations are extremely low provided common sense is
employed. In that spirit, a few brief suggestions that school psychologists may wish to share
with parents and caregivers are provided below. By engaging in these practices, parents and
caregivers can help ensure that children have a safe, as well as happy, Halloween:
- Have children carry flashlights and wear costumes that can be easily identified by drivers
and other adults.
- Have young children trick-or-treat in the company of older children or supervising
adults.
- Have children walk on sidewalks rather than on streets, cross streets carefully at appropriate
intersections, removing their masks while they do so, and travel in well-lit areas.
- Inspect children’s trick-or-treat bags when they are done and discard any unwrapped
items, not because they may be poisoned or contain razor blades, but because they may
be unsanitary.
School psychologists also may consider disseminating information regarding the history
of Halloween and the modern urban legends which surround it to teachers. Classroom
teachers might find such information useful for developing lesson plans, teaching younger
students about the importance of practicing good safety habits while trick-or-treating, and
dispelling inaccurate ideas students may have regarding various Halloween-inspired urban
legends. Providing accurate information to students and generating opportunities for
classroom discussions might have the added benefit of lessening students’ own possible
fears or anxieties regarding Halloween and safety issues.
Two final issues are worth noting. First, some children may not wish to participate in
school Halloween parties or practices either because of religious beliefs, parental request,
health issues, or other reasons. These wishes should be respected and honored by school
personnel, and school psychologists can play an important role in supporting these students.
Second, given the increase in chronic health problems among children and youth
(Power, Heathfield, McGoey, & Blum, 1999), particularly those related to nutrition and
food intake such as childhood obesity and diabetes, the arrival of Halloween — with its
emphasis on candy and sweets consumption – is a perfect time for school psychologists to
be proactive in educating teachers, parents, and students about the numerous benefits of
proper diet and exercise.
Conclusion: Is Halloween Safe for Kids?
Based on the available evidence, the answer to the question “Are children generally
safe trick-or-treating on Halloween?” appears to be a resounding “Yes.” Adult concerns
regarding such urban legends as poisoned candy, razor blades in apples, and satanic rituals
appear to be overblown and unfounded. Traffic accidents appear to be the greatest threat
to children’s safety on Halloween, but even this threat is minimal, and it is also largely
preventable when appropriate measures are taken, such as having children wear brightly-lit
costumes and ensuring they demonstrate appropriate street crossing knowledge and skills.
The most significant safety issue for children on Halloween may be adult carelessness,
inaccurate beliefs, and simple mistakes. In other words, “the real Halloween monsters are
the same monsters we live with every day: bad judgment, anger, and small-mindedness”
(Bannatyne, 2001, p. 232).
References
Bannatyne, L.P. (1998). Halloween: An American holiday, an American history. Gretna,
LA: Pelican.
Bannatyne, L.P. (2001). A Halloween how-to. Gretna, LA: Pelican.
Best, J., & Horiuchi, G.T. (1985). The razor blade in the apple: The social construction of
urban legends. Social Problems, 32, 488–499.
Ellis, B. (1994). “Safe” spooks: New Halloween traditions in response to sadism legends. In
J. Santino (Ed.), Halloween and other festivals of death and life (pp. 24–44). Knoxville,
TN: University of Tennessee Press.
Feldman, E. (2001, October). Halloween. American Heritage, 52, 1–8. Morton, L. (2003).
The Halloween encyclopedia. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc.
Power, T. J., Heathfield, L. T., McGoey, K. E., & Blum, N. J. (1999). Managing and preventing
chronic health problems in children and youth: School psychology’s expanded
mission. School Psychology Review, 28, 251–263.
Rogers, N. (2002). Halloween: From pagan ritual to party night. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Skal, D. J. (2002). Death makes a holiday: A cultural history of Halloween. New York:
Bloomsbury.
© 2006, National Association of School Psychologists. David N. Miller, PhD, is an assistant
professor of school psychology at the University at Albany, State University of New York.
He can be reached via e-mail at: dmiller@uamail.albany.edu