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NASP Communiqué, Vol. 33, #3
November 2004
Journey to Thinking Multiculturally
Journey Into the Somali Culture
By
Abigail F. Castel & Susie Kurata
Contributing Editor's Note:
This is the last in a series of articles featuring culture-focused papers
written by first-year Specialist level school psychology students from San Diego State University. Students reflect on their journey to
thinking multiculturally by learning about a culture different from their
own. By no means are they experts in the culture they studied. The students
recognize that the journey to thinking multiculturally is never-ending
and forever evolving. Their stories are unique and their experiences
brought each of them to different places professionally and personally.
It is our hope that this series has encouraged practitioners, trainers,
students and other professionals to take their own journeys. ---Tonika
Duren Green
It would be erroneous
to discuss Somali culture separately from a consideration of its political
history and the presence of Somalis in the U.S. Decades of political upheaval have created
the Somali existence as a refugee.
Before the civil war, an estimated
7.7. million people lived in Somalia, while today, about one million Somali
are scattered around the world (Cultural Orientation Project, 2004). While
a great number of refugees live in neighboring countries in East Africa and in the Middle East, there are Somali communities throughout Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Finland, England) and North America. Somalis in the United States have lived predominantly in New York, Los Angeles, Washington, DC, Boston, Atlanta, Detroit and recently, San Diego and Seattle. Particularly, recent first and second
waves of Somali immigrants have settled in the Minneapolis-St.Paul area,
where an estimated 40-70% of Somali immigrants now reside, making it the
largest American home to Somali refugees (Greeson, Veach, & LeRoy,
2001; Minnesota Foundation, 2004). Somalis are one of the largest immigrant
communities in Canada, with the majority living in metropolitan Toronto.
Refugees in the U.S.
"The complex war among clan-based
militias has displaced almost 50% of the population, and hundreds of thousands
have died" (Kemp & Rasbridge, 2001, p. 59). The Somali people have
suffered extreme oppression at the hands of dictators and warlords. In
response to the growing violence and instability, many have fled their
country to the United States to seek a better life for their families
and to reunite with those who fled earlier. Families could only bring
the number of children the family could afford. The decision deciding
which child would be left behind was a difficult task. Mothers had no
choice but to leave the young children behind in the hope of sponsoring
them once they established permanent residency. However, the process of
gaining permanent residency takes an average of five years, and in many
cases families never succeed in bringing their families to the U.S.
The
majority of Somalis are Muslim and there does exist in the U.S. a fear of Muslims, especially
after the tragedy of September
11, 2001. There is a negative
stereotype of Muslims as zealous fanatics, which tends to increase after
political crises like the bombing of the World Trade Center (Carter, 1999). In response
to this, Somalis may be wary of other people wanting to gain entry into
their community. Considering the presence of racism and oppression, it
would not be surprising that there would be Somalis who are suspicious
of others. This was true in our case. We tried to enter into the culture
but it was very difficult because of issues of mistrust. Cultural brokers
can make it easier for you to enter into the culture of focus.
Our journey to learning
more about Somali culture included: (a) a cross-cultural interview with
members of the Somali community, (b) volunteering in the Somali community,
(c) contacting agencies that serviced Somali communities and (d) obtaining
cultural research.
Religion
If one is to understand the Somali culture, one
must understand the role of the Islamic religion in their culture. For
Muslims, there are five pillars of worship as decreed by the Qur'an, including
1) the only god is Allah and his prophet is Muhammad; 2) prayer must be
performed five times every day; 3) wealth is to be shared with those in
need; 4) one must fast from sunrise to sunset in the month of Ramadan;
and 5) one must make a pilgrimage to Mecca in one's lifetime, if one can
afford it (Kelly, Aridi, & Bakhtiar, 1996). Religion is very important
to people from Somalia. We will never forget
the words of Sahra, our cultural broker: "If I accomplish something, then
it was God who helped me" (Sahra, personal communication, September 16, 2003). This
reflects the Muslim belief in fate and God's will.
Family Practices and Values
Somalia's political culture is mainly egalitarian;
social and political changes have resulted in new patterns of family life. Newly
arrived immigrants struggle to make ends meet, in addition to having difficulty
adjusting to an environment, laws and beliefs that are very different from
their own. In recent years, Somali families have stressed the importance
of greater educational opportunities and more access to government services. There
is one thing that remains consistent among the Somali people, and that
is the importance of family. Family is the ultimate source of personal
security and identity; the strength of family ties provides security in
times of need. The protection of family honor and loyalty are extremely
important to Somali families. The importance of family is reflected in
the question, "what is your lineage?" Historian Charles Geshekter notes, "When
Somalis meet each other they don't ask: Where are you from? Rather, they
ask: Whom are you from? Genealogy is to Somalis what an address
is to Americans" (Research and Data Group, 2003, p.11).
Many Somali values
are comparable to American values. For example, Somalis value independence,
democracy, egalitarianism and individualism. Somalis also value their
friendships and generosity for others. Somalis are brought up to respect
their parents and to seek advice and blessings (du'o) from them. The
lack of respect and esteem brings forth habaar (curse). Regardless
of one's age, the son or daughter must ask for blessings and even advice
on how to deal with certain matters. Grandparents are the center of the
extended family. They often have the role of a mediator, arbitrating disputes
between siblings. It is an obligation for a grown son or daughter to contribute
to a family member who may not be doing well. In Somali families, parents
in their senior years continue to have a large role in family management
(Abdullahi, 2001).
The Somali community in San Diego is
a "tight-knit community, with most of the essentials available within close
proximity" (Sahra, personal communication, 2003). Somalis emphasize the
inclusion of extended families, regardless of whether they are blood relations. It
is not unusual to have several families living together in one apartment
or home.
Stressors of African Refugee Children
The stress of being
a new student in a new school is compounded ten fold when one adds the
experiences of a refugee child. In addition to the normal stressors involved
in going to a new school, a refugee must also deal with learning a new
language and a new culture. Their trauma experience does not end in their
flight from their homeland; it is carried with them to their new home. Many
refugees have witnessed the destruction of their communities and the loss
of their family members. Approximately 400,000 people died of famine or
disease or were killed in the war. Approximately 45% of the population
was displaced inside Somalia or fled to neighboring countries, to the Middle
East, or to the West, in search for resettlement
camps. In addition, for those who were impoverished in their own countries,
they likely will experience that poverty in the United States.
Cultural Entry Experiences
We were fortunate enough to work with Sahra, a cultural
broker, who was very knowledgeable of Somali culture. Sahra came to the United
States as a Somali refugee eight years ago. When we
first met her, she was garbed in traditional Muslim clothing. Her head was
covered with a scarf (hijab) and she was wearing a long flowing dress that
concealed her from neck to ankle. We realized when speaking with her that
she possessed the worldview of a Somali refugee and a Muslim woman. Sahra
introduced us to the culture through experiential learning and her connections
within the community. For example, we were able to contact several agencies
in Minnesota that serve the needs of the Somali community. One particular
agency was the Somali Mai Community of Minnesota, Inc., a grassroots organization
that targets the Mai-speaking community. The SOMCOM provides services to
help refugees locate jobs, homes and provides information on the services
that are available on the local, state and federal level. They have tutoring
available for English acquisition as well.
Personal reflection. In our interactions with the Somali community, through interviews,
community service and tutoring, we have found them to be peaceful and open
to sharing the aspects of their culture, religion, history and trauma. The
stereotyping that exists and targets the Muslim population is an additional
stressor that the Somalis must face as they live in this country. Through
no fault of their own, they must live in a society whose dominant Christian
values may interfere with the ability to view their world with empathy
and understanding.
Somali people are resilient
and have come to the U.S. to forge new lives for themselves and
their families. Their population faces many problems as they immigrate
into the U.S. Families may have been separated or have
experienced deaths of loved ones due to the violence in Somalia. They seek education, jobs and homes
in this new society that views their religion with fear and ignorance. They
face oppression and prejudice as the media vilifies an entire religion
for the crimes of a few. They find strength in their religion and their
faith in Allah. Our journey has led to an honest exploration of our assumptions
and stereotypes of the Muslim religion.
Implications for School Psychology
As the number of
Somali children in American schools increase, current and future professionals
must demonstrate culturally responsive practice. As a practitioner working
with a Somali population, there are several important factors that must
be taken into consideration: their Islamic faith, their communal nature,
their strong family bonds and their history as refugees. It would be important
to present a continuing professional development workshop for teachers
in schools that provides culturally appropriate information about Islam. There
are many negative stereotypes that teachers may unconsciously subscribe
to and providing them with correct information about the religion may help
dissipate those stereotypes.
In addition, when Somali students
experience prejudice for wearing traditional Muslim clothing, teachers
will be better equipped to handle those situations. It would also be important
to provide Somali students with stimulating, alternative educational options
to school activities based in Western religious and cultural practices,
rather than merely allowing them to "sit out" (Carter, 1999). The holy
month of Ramadan should also be addressed by school policies, such as providing
an alternative to P.E. for those Muslim children who are required to fast
and lack the energy to participate in rigorous sports (Carter, 1999).
It is necessary
to take into account the communal nature and strong family bonds of the
Somali culture. It would be beneficial to assess the resources that exist
in the community and to utilize those resources. For example, if a Somali
teenager is referred for delinquent behavior, it may be advantageous to
work with a Somali resource center and involve him/her in a mentoring program.
The services available to the Somali population in Minnesota provide juvenile advocacy, ESL classes,
job placement, job training, housing placement and basic counseling services.
If one were working
with a newly arrived immigrant, it would be important to assess the immediate
needs of the student. For example, if the student's family is facing financial
strains and housing difficulties, and the child is referred due to lack
of educational progress, it would be ineffective to implement strategies
that only address academic achievement. On the level of the ecosystem,
it would be essential to target the immediate needs and concerns of the
student. In this case, it would be important to collaborate with agencies
in the community to assist the family in finding adequate housing and employment.
Somali students may have experienced
extreme traumas in Somalia and it is imperative to address these
issues. Again, it would be advantageous to utilize the resources that
specifically assist refugee families and to provide inservice training
to teachers about the experiences of refugees to increase their understanding
of the population they are teaching.
Once the immediate dilemmas
are addressed, then it may be effective to implement educational assessment
and intervention. As with any culture, one must not generalize to the
entire population. The experiences of the individual and the degree of
acculturation can vary. Before implementing interventions, it is important
to assess the level of acculturation and the degree to which the individual
subscribes to the culture.
Summary
The Somali culture
is one of beauty that has suffered from the ravages of war and a violent
history. Their exodus to the U.S. is not the peaceful journey that many
immigrants have experienced, but rather a flight into the arms of a country
that may view them with distrust. However, they are armed with a passionate
faith in their Islamic religion and strong familial bonds. Our journey
began with curiosity. The knowledge that can be gained or acquired about
the Somali culture will be invaluable to one's development as a practitioner. We
recognize that we have not learned all that there is to know about the
Somali culture; it is too complex and too wondrous, but the knowledge is
there as long as you keep seeking it.
References
Abdullahi,
M. (2001). Culture and customs of Somalia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Carter, R.B. (1999). Counseling Muslim children in school settings. Professional School Counseling, 2,
183-189.
Cutural Orientation Project (2004). Somalis:
Their history and culture. Retrieved September 4, 2004 from http://www.culturalorientation.net/Somali/sbib.html
Greeson, C. J., Veach, P. M., & LeRoy, B. S. (2001). A qualitative
investigation of Somali immigrant perceptions of disability: Implications
for genetic counseling. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 10,
359-378.
Kelly, E.W., Jr., Aridi, A., & Bakhtiar,
L. (1996). Muslims in the United States: An exploratory study of universal and mental health
values. Counseling & Values, 40, 206-218.
Kemp, C., & Rasbridge, L. A. (2001).
East African cultures: Part I, Somali. Journal of Hospice and Palliative
Nursing, 3(2), 59-61.
Minnesota Foundation (2004). Immigration in Minnesota (Somalia). Retrieved September
4, 2004 from http://www.minneapolisfoundation.org/
immigrants/somalia1.htm
Research & Data Group, Ontario Ministry
of Citizenship, Culture & Recreation (2003). Somali settlement
experiences in Canada. Retrieved October
4, 2003, from http://collections.ic.gc.ca/somalia/arrival.html
© 2004,
National Association of School Psychologists. Abigail F. Castel and Susie
Kurata are second-year students in the School Psychology program at San
Diego State University. They
would like to thank all of the cultural brokers that helped guide them
through the complexity and richness of Somali culture. Many thanks to
Tonika Duren Green, PhD, and her first-year students (2003-04) for contributing
their papers to this series. We hope to have another round of journeys
to share next spring.